"After 1970, many American institutions such as corporations, unions, and universities were required to establish quotas," according to James T. Patterson. This shift involved increased federal government intervention in private sector personnel decisions, marking a significant change in policy implementation.
The transformation was driven largely by executive actions, particularly under Nixon, and court rulings, not by elected officials' support. Patterson emphasizes that such affirmative action measures largely lacked backing from democratically elected representatives during this period.